Describe what psychologists have discovered about traditional and modern theories of leadership.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (Feb/Mar 2020). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [7-8] (a) Level 4 (7-8 marks): Description is accurate, coherent and detailed and use of psychological terminology is accurate and comprehensive. The answer demonstrates excellent understanding of the material and the answer is competently organised.
2. [5-6] (a) Level 3 (5-6 marks): Description is mainly accurate, reasonably coherent and reasonably detailed and use of psychological terminology is accurate but may not be comprehensive. The answer demonstrates good understanding of the material and the answer has some organisation.
3. [3-4] (a) Level 2 (3-4 marks): Description is sometimes accurate and coherent but lacks detail and use of psychological terminology is adequate. The answer demonstrates reasonable (sufficient) understanding but is lacking in organisation.
4. [1-2] (a) Level 1 (1-2 marks): Description is largely inaccurate, lacks both detail and coherence and the use of psychological terminology is limited. The answer demonstrates limited understanding of the material and there is little, if any, organisation.
5. [0] (a) Level 0 (0 marks): No response worthy of credit.
6. [8] (a) Traditional and modern theories of leadership, including the following: universalist and behavioural theories; adaptive leadership (Heifetz, 1997); three levels of leadership (Scouller, 2011).
7. [8] (a) Universalist and behavioural theories: Universalist - look at the characteristics and personal qualities of great leaders. Woods (1913) proposed the 'Great Man Theory' arguing that leaders are born and not made. They can also be seen as transformational/charismatic leaders who inspire and lead others. They will show a vision, self-confidence, extraordinary behaviour, etc.
8. [8] (a) Behavioural - Ohio and Michigan state studies. Ohio study found two categories: initiating structure and consideration. Michigan found two types: task-oriented and relationship-oriented.
9. [8] (a) Adaptive leadership (Heifetz, 1997): Leaders have to inspire their workforce to tackle whatever challenges happen and to then make them work to the best of their ability. Leaders should adapt their style to suit the current economic market of their organisation. Can include - Making changes that enable workforce to thrive, diversity encouraged, experimentation, helping others to find their inner authority, new solutions, etc.
10. [8] (a) Three levels of leadership (Scouller, 2011): Public leadership where the leader is influencing more than one individual so it is in a public setting, e.g. this could involve organising and/or delegating to the group. Private leadership is when the leader is just influencing one individual so it is in a private setting, e.g. building trust with an individual employee and helping them to set goals. Personal leadership – this is the leader’s psychological, moral and technical skills and how they are presented/utilised in the company, e.g. this could include time management and motivated the employees in the company to work harder. Argues personal leadership is the most powerful of the three. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.
11. [9-10] (b) Level 4 (9-10 marks): Evaluation is comprehensive and the range of issues covered is highly relevant to the question. The answer demonstrates evidence of careful planning, organisation and selection of material. There is effective use of appropriate supporting examples which are explicitly related to the question. Analysis (valid conclusions that effectively summarise issues and arguments) is evident throughout. The answer demonstrates an excellent understanding of the material.
12. [7-8] (b) Level 3 (7-8 marks): Evaluation is good. There is a range of evaluative issues. There is good organisation of evaluative issues (rather than 'study by study'). There is good use of supporting examples which are related to the question. Analysis is often evident. The answer demonstrates a good understanding of the material.
13. [4-6] (b) Level 2 (4-6 marks): Evaluation is mostly accurate but limited. Range of issues (which may or may not include the named issue) is limited. The answer may only hint at issues but there is little organisation or clarity. Supporting examples may not be entirely relevant to the question. Analysis is limited. The answer lacks detail and demonstrates a limited understanding of the material.
14. [1-3] (b) Level 1 (1-3 marks): Evaluation is basic and the range of issues included is sparse. There is little organisation and little, if any, use of supporting examples. Analysis is limited or absent. The answer demonstrates little understanding of the material.
15. [0] (b) Level 0 (0 marks): No response worthy of credit.
16. [10] (b) A range of issues could be used for evaluation here. These include: Named issue – nature versus nurture – The great man theory believes that leaders are born and not made so supports the nature side of the debate. The other two theories believe that leaders can be adaptive and make changes in order to suit the changing needs of the organisation that they lead. Therefore they plus the behavioural theories believe leadership can be learned/nurtured.
17. [10] (b) Other issues: Cultural bias of theories of leadership; Effectiveness and appropriateness of leadership theories; Any appropriate evaluation issue of evidence of which leadership style theory is based (no requirement to evaluate any evidence in this response); Reductionist nature of theory; Individual/situational debate. Other appropriate responses should also be credited.