Machleit et al. (2000) found that perceived crowding in shops, created by manipulating either human (social) density or spatial density, changed levels of pleasure and satisfaction.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (Oct/Nov 2021). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [1] 1 mark for answer, 2 marks for elaboration/example.
2. Perceived crowding is a result of physical, social, and personal factors that sensitize the individual to actual or potential problems arising from scarce space (Stokols, 1972).
3. Crowding is a psychological state (density is a physical state) and so any answer must acknowledge the psychological component.
4. The implication of this is that there are individual differences where one person might feel crowded and another person might not in the same circumstances.
5. [1] 1 mark basic difference,
6. [2] 2 marks detailed answer/elaboration or use of example.
7. Spatial density: Within the retailing context, for example, the amount of merchandise and fixtures as well as their configuration within the store could enhance or suppress perceived crowding associated with physical stimuli.
8. Human density: The social (or human) dimension of crowding, on the other hand, concerns the number of individuals as well as the rate and extent of social interaction among people in a given environmental setting.
9. [1] 1 mark for each feature, features as highlighted above.
10. Perceived crowding (not density) was measured via the eight-item, two-dimensional Likert-type scale validated by Machleit et al. (1994).
11. The four items in the human crowding dimension were ‘The store seemed very crowded to me,’ ‘The store was a little too busy,’ ‘There wasn't much traffic in the store during my shopping trip’ (reverse coded), ‘There were a lot of shoppers in the store.’ (examples of questions)
12. Note: Any aspect related to the store, for example 'The store seemed very spacious' scores 0 marks as it is spatial, not human.
13. [1-2] 1-2 marks for outline of model,
14. [1-2] 1-2 marks for application of above model to crowding.
15. The Mehrabian and Russell (1974) pleasure/arousal/dominance (PAD) Model proposes that emotions can be measured along three dimensions:
16. Pleasure the degree to which a person is contented, happy, satisfied, pleased, relaxed, important, cares, hopeful.
17. Arousal the degree to which a person is stimulated, excited, jittery, aroused, frenzied, autonomous, wide-awake, controlling.
18. Dominance the extent to which a person feels in control of the situation (rather than being controlled) and is able to act freely.
19. This leads to approach (like) or avoidance (dislike).
20. Also possible is the cognition-emotion model.
21. [1] 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage (however basic/detailed) which is related to the question (max 4 marks).
22. [1] 1 mark for conclusion.
23. Note: If three (or more) arguments for one side, best two credited. If one side only, max 2 marks.
24. Asking people directly means that participants are given the opportunity to express their feelings and explain their shopping behaviour rather than the researcher trying to work out reasons for their behaviour from other methods.
25. Relatively large numbers of participants can be involved relatively easily. Questionnaires are easy to replicate.
26. Data can be qualitative, but may also be quantitative depending on type of question.
27. Some participants may provide socially desirable responses about the effect of crowding; not give truthful answers; respond to demand characteristics.
28. Closed/fixed choice questions may force participants into choosing answers that do not reflect their true opinion and therefore may lower validity.
29. Researchers have to be careful about use of leading questions; it could affect the validity of the data collected.
30. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented. 1 mark if appropriate. A conclusion is a 'decision reached by reasoning' and so a summary of points already made scores 0 marks.