Unhealthy behaviours are difficult to change because of lifestyles; behaviours developed over a period of years that have become habitual. Lau et al. (1990) found that understanding how these habits are formed in the early years is important to understanding how they can be changed.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (May/June 2018). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. Marks: 1 mark for basic answer (e.g. 'over long period of time'), 1 mark for elaboration/ example (e.g. reason why)
2. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): ∞ participants (students) complete baseline questions at start of university
3. ∞ participants complete additional questionnaires for each year they are at university.
4. Marks: 2 marks for each correct difference.
5. Indicative content: ∞ The enduring family socialisation model argues that preventive health beliefs and behaviour are learned from the family during childhood and remain fairly stable throughout life. This model attributes primary influence to parents because their contact with their children begins earlier and is more sustained than contact from other socialising agents. This model does not view peers as very influential. The model would be invalidated by evidence from socialising agents outside the immediate family.
6. ∞ The lifelong openness model suggests that people are always open to persuasion from influential socialising agents; it gives parents no status. It would not expect the influence of a family to continue outside the home when alternative (and more important) models such as peers are available. This model would be invalidated if health beliefs remained stable after leaving home.
7. Marks: 1-2 marks basic answer. 3–4 marks detailed answer/elaboration.
8. Most likely answer (other appropriate responses to be credited): The Windows of vulnerability model.
9. ∞ Parental influence persists unless the child is exposed to important social models who have different and more influential views.
10. ∞ there are periods of vulnerability: 1. Adolescents when children seek independence; 2. When children leave home and live on their own; 3. When they set up a home and get married (or similar).
11. Marks: Question requires discussion; always plural of each argument, and always requires conclusion. 1 mark for each advantage/disadvantage up to 4 max. 1 mark for conclusion.
12. Advantages ∞ it determines change or stability over time. Have parental beliefs persisted or have peers become influential.
13. ∞ it tracks the development of the same individual, so many factors remain constant.
14. ∞ measures can be repeated and so have reliability.
15. Disadvantages ∞ attrition: participants drop out; can't be contacted.
16. ∞ once a study has started the main variables cannot be changed, even though something new may be more relevant.
17. ∞ unforeseen variables may occur; life experiences may change health beliefs. Becoming seriously ill may change beliefs significantly - and nothing to do with family or peers.
18. Conclusion: any appropriate conclusion drawn from the discussion that has been presented.