Section B Answer EITHER Question 3 OR Question 4. EITHER

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (Oct/Nov 2022). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. This question could be answered from the perspective of political and / or religious, and according to one or more than one school of thought, such as Sunni or Shi'i.
2. The Caliph is the title of a Sunni religious leader, first used to describe the four pious Caliphs who succeeded Muhammad (pbuh) and then to describe the leaders of the dynasties which followed, including the Umayyad, 'Abbasid and later Ottoman Caliphate. Some other Muslim groups have claimed the title of Caliph for their leaders even up to the present day.
3. Shi'i Muslims might accept the political leadership of the Caliph in tandem with the religious leadership of Imams specifically from the Prophet's family line and make a distinction between the roles at times after Caliph Ali.
4. Muhammad (pbuh) had been the religious and political leader of Madinah, so Abu Bakr who followed as the first Caliph also assumed a religious and political role. In those days the distinction was not made, since everything was believed to be guided by God according to God's command. Every aspect of life was considered religious.
5. The Qur'an refers to creating a vicegerent on earth. In a hadith, Muhammad (pbuh) said: 'Leaders will take charge of you after me, where the pious (one) will lead you with his piety and the impious (one) with his impiety, so only listen to them and obey them in everything which conforms with the truth (Islam).' This is used to justify the concept of Caliphate and specifically the Rashidun Caliphate as political and religious leaders.
6. Caliphs were originally selected with the consent of the people through consultations (shura) and consulted people on their policies. References in the Qur'an also supported taking account of the needs of the people and warning against authoritarian rule.
7. Caliphs did not have special powers and were not regarded as prophets. The first four caliphs were honoured for their piety and knowledge, having been close companions of Muhammad (pbuh) and so in a good position to preserve his legacy.
8. A new concept has emerged in modern times of a world-wide Caliph as a saviour from Imperial and post-Imperial oppression. Islamist politicians have promoted the vision, from a Sunni perspective, of the creation of a Sunni Caliph in a new political form, with religious and political authority, as someone who would overthrow corrupt governments and be a champion of Islamic identity.
9. This question might be interpreted in terms of the differences between Sunni Caliphs and Shi'i Imams. Another valid interpretation is between the Imam as a religious leader and the Caliph who became a political leader, as time went on. Accept all relevant answers.
10. Candidates might define the Imam as the Shi'i Imams, in particular the line of Imams in Twelver Shi'i Islam and leaders of other Shi'i sects such as the Ismailis; or they might define Imam as the leader of a Sunni school of thought such as Abu Hanifa, or even a Sunni Imam as leader of a mosque. This question asks them to evaluate the ways in which this role is different from that of the Caliph.
11. Sunni Caliphs were selected based on piety and with consultation some would say election – from the people. They were expected to be educated and capable for the role and to follow in the traditions of Islam and the teachings of Muhammad (pbuh). Where new guidance was needed, the Caliph would look back on what Muhammad (pbuh) did and seek to copy it as best they could.
12. Shi'i Imams were required to be in the family line of Muhammad (pbuh) and his descendants. They were usually given years, even a lifetime, of religious teaching and authority passed down from religious leaders to enable them to conduct their role. This included the power to interpret the inner meaning of the Qur'an and make rulings to help their people understand and follow Islam. This could include logically deriving teachings through their own interpretation.
13. This could be argued to be quite a different way of deriving teachings from the Caliph.
14. Leaders of Sunni schools of thoughts were Imams who specialised in religious matters and developed the application of Islamic jurisprudence (fiqh). They may have advised political leaders, such as the Caliph, but tended to take different roles apart from political life and focused on religious matters.
15. Caliphs such as Abu Bakr were known for their piety and led the people in prayer. They were respected for knowing the Qur'an and the Sunnah better than anybody since they were present as companions of the Prophet (pbuh) during most of the revelations and to hear most of his sayings.
16. Shi'i Imams are said to have the power to interpret the Qur'an and their followers accept their rulings. They are known and respected for their knowledge and piety.
17. Ali was the fourth Caliph for Sunnis but the First Imam after the Prophet (pbuh) for Shi'i Muslims.
18. Today, some Shi'i Muslims, especially those in Iran, give their clerics a religious and political role, whereas others make distinction between the two roles.
19. Conclusions might make a personal judgment about the extent and significance of any similarities and differences between the two roles. An opinion about the effect of these differences, if any, on Muslims today might help to analyse the significance of this issue.