Explain the use of individual interpretation (ijtihad), giving examples.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (May/June 2025). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [10] A01 - Knowledge and understanding
2. Mark according to the AO1 – 10-mark levels of response marking grid for knowledge and understanding.
3. Answers may include some of the following ideas, but all valid material must be credited.
4. • Individual interpretation (ijtihad) means to make effort to solve a legal question in Islam, which is not clearly solved by the Qur'an, Sunnah and by the consensus of scholars (ijma '). If a question has already been clearly answered, then individual interpretation (ijtihad) is not made.
5. • Individual interpretation (ijtihad) also means personal endeavour to find a solution.
6. • Drinking alcohol is forbidden in Islam but today there are many other substances such as tobacco and modern drugs not specifically covered. Individual interpretation (ijtihad) has been made to make fresh interpretations of what is an intoxicating substance as well as consideration of what is harmful and therefore disallowed on that basis.
7. • Taxation and banking are one area for Muslims to consider. Interest is considered forbidden but share of ownership is a new interpretation which has enabled a new form of mortgage to be made which is considered permitted in Islam. This re-interpretation may be seen as a form of individual interpretation (ijtihad).
8. • In the area of criminal law and punishment, some argue that the main point is to ensure the punishment fits the crime and that society is protected, as well as individuals feel redress. Original, literal punishments might include cutting of hands. However today, some argue that new interpretations be made within the context of the time to harmonise the intention and what is acceptable bearing in mind modern human rights.
9. • In each case the individual interpretation (ijtihad) is made by individual opinion, taking into account any relevant original, primary source, the Qur'an and Hadith, and re-interpreting the general principles for the problem arising in the modern day. The individual interpretation (ijtihad) made is never in contradiction to these primary sources and may take into account scholarly agreement but not necessarily in agreement or consensus, because its nature is individual, and so is only a commitment binding the person making the opinion and their sworn followers.
10. [15] AO2 – Analysis and evaluation
11. Mark according to the AO2 – 15-mark levels of response marking grid for analysis and evaluation.
12. Answers may refer to any Islamic religious theory or teaching. Candidates may propose, analyse and evaluate some of the following arguments. All relevant arguments must be credited.
13. Definitions
14. • The companions (sahaba) were those who lived around Muhammad (pbuh) and therefore knew his Sunnah well and could apply it.
15. Agree
16. • The companions (sahaba) knew Muhammad (pbuh) best so any opinions made after the companions (sahaba) might be considered less reliable. To make opinions which were to be regarded as legal rulings might then be seen as a step too far.
17. • The scholar al-Ghazali also took that opinion, and after his time it was said that the 'gates of individual interpretation (ijtihad)' had closed. The long time that had gone by since the companions (sahaba) was too great for individual interpretation (ijtihad) to be reliable and in any case, he believed that the scholars had already solved legal questions.
18. • Many scholars from Hanafi and Shafi'i schools of thought decided that the days of individual interpretation (ijtihad) were over. Any new problems could be addressed by copying and applying earlier opinions (taqlid) rather than making totally fresh interpretations.
19. Disagree
20. • Scholars are well versed in the Qur'an and Hadith and knowledgeable enough therefore to make personal opinions to solve new problems which arise, in the light of existing teaching.
21. • Many Salafis recommended individual interpretations (ijtihad) because they said this would strengthen the Muslims, who had become too reliant on following scholars' opinions (taqlid). The companions (sahaba) left knowledge which the Muslims of today could read about and make their own interpretations.
22. • Throughout history there have always been some Muslims who made individual interpretation (ijtihad), including Shi'i scholars, modern reformers, including Sir Sayyid Ahmad Khan, who encouraged Muslims to take up modern education for their social advancement in South Asia. Individual interpretation (ijtihad) therefore has an important role to play in social advancement for Muslims, to make sense of modern problems.
23. Conclusions
24. • Conclusions should be made weighing up how far individual interpretation (ijtihad) may be made after the time of the companions (sahaba) or whether it should end with them.