Outline what is meant by the term 'positive reinforcement'. Include an example from the study by Fagen et al. (elephant learning) in your answer.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (May/June 2025). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [3] 1 mark per correct point. 1 mark for an example from the study by Fagen. e.g., Positive reinforcement is when a reward is given after the completion of a desired behaviour. This increases the probability that the desired behaviour will be repeated. In the study by Fagen, the elephants were rewarded with banana when a specific behaviour was shown (1 mark: example). There are other creditworthy responses. Only credit examples from the study by Fagen. Do credit 'encourage/strengthen/enhances behaviour' as meaning increasing probability. Do not credit 'rewarded with food'. Do not credit 'rewarded with banana' by itself.
2. [4] 1 mark per point made, with 1 mark available for definition of individual/situational explanation. Up to 4 marks for examples/explanations that support individual/situational. e.g., Roksana The individual side refers to behaviours from factors within the person (dispositional) (1 mark: definition). There were individual differences in the amount of time it took the elephants to be trained on the trunk wash (1 mark: example). Elephant 2 only needed 25 sessions/Elephant 1 needed 30 etc. (1 mark: example). Elephant 5 did not successfully complete the training (1 mark: example). This could have been because she was older than the rest of the elephants/had vision problems/abscess on foot/trunk weakness (1 mark: explanation). If both Roksana and Tien feature in the answer, mark them independently and credit the highest score. If the candidate mixes up Roksana and Tien (e.g. says Tien but gives an individual explanation answer) then max 2 and annotate with a ? Do not credit definitions that are tautological, for example, the situational explanation is based on the situation. Do not credit individual differences as a definition mark. Do credit statements like 'elephant 2 as the fastest' etc. For Roksana: If the elephants are not correctly ‘numbered' then generic statements like 'one elephant was faster' or 'one failed to complete the trunk wash' can only be credited once. e.g., Tien The situational side refers to behaviour from factors in the external environment (1 mark). The reason the elephants could complete the trunk wash was because of the training/operant conditioning (1 mark: explanation). Their behaviour was shaped by the researchers who rewarded a series of different behaviours like trunk here (1 mark: example). The elephants received banana pieces every time they performed a certain behaviour correctly, so this encouraged them to repeat the behaviours (1 mark: example/explanation). There are other creditworthy examples/explanations.