Explain how Islamic philosophers used reasoning in their writings.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (Oct/Nov 2021). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [10] Muslims may refer to Qur'anic knowledge as the revelation and to signs to be found in the natural world. These can be used by philosophers with reasoning to work out knowledge. The Qur'an 41:53 states: 'Soon will We show them our Signs in the (furthest) regions (of the earth), and in their own souls, until it becomes manifest to them that this is the Truth. Is it not enough that thy Lord doth witness all things?' In the first few centuries of Islam, some theologians engaged in kalam, deriving theological knowledge through reasoning. Then, a philosophical movement, known as falsafah, arose during the time of the 'Abbasids. Some Islamic philosophers made observations and speculated on meaning. Others argued that this is incoherent or even heretical, if knowledge derived from revelation was questioned or contradicted. The Qur'an suggests that God made the universe in stages or days, and was therefore the essential first cause, eternal and therefore separate from the creation. Some Muslim writers found evidence in the creation such as a freshness or newness, to suggest that it was created in time. Candidates might refer to scholars, such as an example from one or more of the following: Al-Biruni worked out through careful observation that the planets were moving in a sphere like pattern. He also concluded that the earth was round. By calculating how far he could see to the horizon from the top of a hill, al-Biruni worked out the radius of the earth. He further went on to write a guide to religions and took a primarily observational, rather than judgemental approach. Avicenna (Ibn Sina) argued that the unity in the universe suggested the thing that existed was God. God was the 'necessary existent', the thing that had to be there. One cause led to the next. Al-Ghazali was a philosopher who used reasoning very much from a mainstream Islamic standpoint. He criticised using reasoning where it led to confusion and saw devotional practices as the way forward. Spanish Sufi master Ibn Arabi said that the universe was a reflection of the qualities of God. He deduced that as God is eternal, then his reflection, the creation, is not in the same dimension as time. He observed patterns in the universe, calculated its movement, and suggested it may go through cycles of birth, death and rebirth, a continuous creation. The novel, Hayy Ibn Yaqzan, written by Spanish Muslim Ibn Tufayl, fictionalises the account of a boy marooned on a desert island alone, who grows up to logically deduce, from the evidence in nature around him, various beliefs including the creation of the universe from a single being. Some Muslims, such as al-Jahiz and later Ibn Khaldun, even concluded from their observations that plants and animals may have evolved in some ways. It could be argued that Islamic observers did little to add to ancient Greek ideas, and their thoughts were limited by arguments with those who condemned speculation as un-Islamic. This mean that observations developed little into theory.
2. [15] Definitions: Definitions of philosophy might be made, and the different periods to be compared outlined. Candidates might focus on one or more writings they have studied and trace the influence of ancient Greek ideas through those works, making comparisons with Islamic ideas. Agree: Whilst Aristotle was influential, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) developed his own approach which became more influential in the Islamic world. He used reason and proof, as did the ancient Greeks, but applied this within the bounds of traditional Islamic belief, to be consistent with the belief in a single, all-powerful, creator God. Ibn al-Haytham found imitation (taqlid) limiting and thought that it should be restricted to the Prophetic traditions. Many other Muslims rejected Greek philosophy precisely because it went further than imitation of the Prophetic traditions. Al-Ghazali and rise of the Ash'ari school in the 12th century increased criticisms and denunciations of Greek philosophy and use of logic. Disagree: The use of logic by ancient Greeks was followed to some extent by Muslims who, in the early 'Abbasid period, developed analogy (qiyas) and individual interpretation (ijtihad). The Mu'tazilah were influenced by Aristotle, an ancient Greek philosopher, and went further by developing rationalism in justifying their doctrines. At this time the translation movement was promoted by 'Abbasid Caliph al-Ma'mun and others and ancient Greek philosophy was looked on favourably by some in ruling circles. Therefore, some common ideas developed. Islamic philosophy (falsafah) developed with writers such as al-Kindi and al-Farabi keen to borrow ideas from the ancient Greeks. They saw no conflict with pre-Islamic philosophical traditions. Ibn al-Haytham was influenced particularly by ancient Greek Ptolemy and used maths and science to demonstrate his points. Conclusions: An overview or judgement might distinguish between different periods in the development and decline of Islamic philosophy and the extent to which it had aspects in common with the ancient Greeks at those times, before coming to an overall conclusion.