Answer one question from one section only. Section C: International option China and Japan, 1912–45 Read the sources and then answer both parts of the question. Source A Oh brothers: were you fools or heroes to march? The imperialist bullets were of steel, your bodies only of flesh and blood. But see: Chiang Kai-shek's new wife has a beautiful diamond ring and a twelve-thousand-dollar automobile with expensive musical horns, and he rolls in splendour to his palace while his mercenaries cheer. He has glory and power, while you are dead. But oh, my brothers: don't envy that traitor general. All China knows that the workers' blood and sweat pay for those luxuries. All China will find revenge. And you, my brothers, were not foolish or mad, but the first sparks of the fire to burn him up. You will live while it blazes, the fire of World Revolution. From a poem called ‘To the Martyred Students and Workers Killed in the Shanghai Massacre', published in a radical newspaper, May 1928. Source B We are fighting this war for our national existence and for freedom. A virtuous government has the support of the people. In our present struggle against Japan we have been able to live up to this high principle. Economically we have the advantage. During eighteen months of hostilities our financial structure has not been seriously injured, our currency has remained steady and the livelihood of the people has been little affected. Owing to the excellent harvests in several provinces last year and the campaign against waste, there are signs of plenty among our people. There is no use denying the fact that we have lost much territory. We have sacrificed heavily the lives and wealth of our fellow-countrymen and have abandoned vast material properties and resources. Our enemy today is approaching collapse. With determination and confidence in victory we can offset our shortage of modern armaments. From a speech by Chiang Kai-shek to the Central Committee of the Kuomintang, 1939. Source C Many left-wing writers comment that the Kuomintang is hopelessly corrupt. It does include a very high proportion of shopkeepers, Christians, landlords, students and others who have lived overseas. Since the Kuomintang was Westernised, it gathered modernised Chinese of all classes. Naturally the poorest peasants and workers were not a large proportion of such membership. As the governing group, the Kuomintang naturally attracts those who would seek to enter any government. Since it does not promote rural class warfare, existing class relationships continue. It has tried, not always efficiently or faithfully, to carry out land reform and democratisation. The Kuomintang has tolerated widespread corruption because this already existed. It was preoccupied with building a national government, a modern army, adequate finance, and with eradicating some of the worst evils, such as opium, bandits, and Communists (who, whatever their ideals, made a poor nation poorer by fighting this merciless civil war). From an account by an American living in China and advising Chiang Kai-shek, 1941. Source D Chiang Kai-shek says he won't fight the Japanese. What a fight the Russians have made. Compare it with the Chinese disaster. Chiang and his regime are a gang of thugs with the one idea of preserving themselves and their regime. Money, influence, and position are the only consideration of the leaders. Conspiracy, double-crossing, lying reports. Grasping for anything they can get; their only idea is to let someone else do the fighting; false propaganda on their 'heroic struggle'; indifference of leaders to their men. Cowardice and corruption everywhere, smuggling above duty, colossal ignorance and stupidity of staff, total inability to control factions and cliques, continued oppression of the masses. The only factor that saves them is the silent compliance of the common people. We are manoeuvred into a position of having to support this rotten regime and glorify its figurehead, the all-wise, great patriot and soldier Chiang. From US General Joseph Stilwell's diary, January 1942. He was commander of the American Army Forces in China, 1942–44. Answer both parts of the question with reference to the sources.

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Marking points from the official mark scheme (Oct/Nov 2022). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. [15] Indicative content: Similarities: Some military failure is admitted by Chiang Kai-shek in Source B, as 'we have lost much territory' and 'the lives and wealth of our fellow-countrymen', while Source D presents a very negative view of the Chinese military response, seen in the unfavourable contrast: 'What a fight the Russians have made. Compare it with the Chinese disaster.' They both mention the continued 'support of the people' (Source B) for the fight. Source D speaks of the 'compliance of the common people'. Differences: In Source B, the Kuomintang leader claims that his side are committed to fighting for 'our national existence and for freedom' and the struggle against Japan will end in victory as the enemy 'is approaching collapse'. In Source D, the American general is much less positive. He claims that Chiang Kai-shek 'says he won't fight' and that the Kuomintang are dominated by 'cowardice' and a wish to ‘let someone else do the fighting'. Chiang Kai-shek in Source B identifies the 'shortage of modern armaments' as a barrier to their campaign. General Stillwell, in Source D, identifies many other issues, including 'colossal ignorance and stupidity of staff'. Source B claims that the Kuomintang have shown 'high principle' in the 'struggle against Japan'. Source D contradicts this, with references to 'a gang of thugs' and a 'rotten regime'. Explanation: The similarities and differences show two contrasting explanations for the Chinese nationalist failure to defend their country effectively against the Japanese invasion. Chiang Kai-shek acknowledges heavy losses and implying the real issue is lack of 'modern armaments'. He is speaking to his own party and clearly wants to present a hopeful and inspiring message. US General ‘Vinegar Joe' Stilwell is writing a private account of his frustration with the Nationalist war effort in characteristically caustic style. As the commander of the nominally integrated Chinese-American army, he had a difficult relationship with Chiang Kai-Shek. The tone of his criticism is extreme.
2. [25] Indicative content: Support: Source A: supports the view, as it describes the opulent lifestyle of Chiang Kai-shek. It also claims 'that workers' blood and sweat pay for those luxuries'. It also accuses Chiang of corruption in the sense of being a 'traitor general'. Source C: supports the view to some extent. The left-wing view that the 'Kuomintang is hopelessly corrupt' is recorded and the reasons for this are set out. The party is said to attract 'those who would seek to enter any government', which excludes many of the poorest, and so protects the interests of the more privileged. It has also 'tolerated widespread corruption'. Source D: supports the view very emphatically. The American general asserts that 'money, influence, and position are the only consideration of the leaders'. He gives many examples of what he sees as the personal, political and financial corruption of this 'rotten regime' and the man whom he describes sarcastically as 'its figure-head, the all-wise, great patriot and soldier'. Challenge: Source B: presents Chiang Kai-shek's claims that his government was morally irreproachable: a 'virtuous government' which has 'been able to live up to this high principle'. He also claims that the economy has been well and fairly run, as 'our financial structure has not been seriously injured, our currency has remained steady' and that the people are prospering. Source C: also offers some challenge, in suggesting that corruption has not been encouraged, but merely tolerated 'because it already exists'. The composition of the party is characterised as cosmopolitan, with 'modernised Chinese of all classes'. As such, it does not promote 'class warfare' but has tried – if 'not always efficiently or faithfully' to enact modest reforms. Evaluation: Source A shows the Communist view of the Kuomintang leader, after the split between the two groups led to violent purges of Communists in Shanghai and other centres. It is clear that anger with Chiang Kai-shek runs through this poem, but the allegations of corruption can be supported from other sources. The new wife being referred to was the wealthy, American-educated, Soong Mei-ling. In Source B, Chiang Kai-shek is motivated to show his behaviour and government in the best possible light. He is speaking to his supporters, at a time of attack by the Japanese, and is presenting a positive message. Source C is quite balanced analysis, by a sympathetic American observer, which concedes there is some corruption, but does not suggest this is extreme or encouraged by the party leadership. His overall support for the Kuomintang is indicated by his view of Communists as an 'evil' to be eradicated because 'whatever their ideals', they have ‘helped to impoverish a poor nation by merciless civil war'. In Source D, the American General Stilwell has great personal animosity towards Chiang Kai-shek, which clearly colours these claims of corruption. Many Americans felt particularly angry that much of the aid they provided was reportedly appropriated by the leaders of the Kuomintang. These are clearly the genuine beliefs of Stilwell, and although his is an extreme version, aspects of this corruption were widely reported. Taken together, the sources show evidence for the corruption of the Chiang Kai-shek and the Kuomintang over a long period. Both writers of Sources A and D show anger towards the government, and some of Stillwell's views echo those of the Communist poet nearly 15 years earlier (Source A). Source C offers some justifications for the corruption, which in itself indicates that awareness of it was widespread. It is only Chiang Kai-shek himself who presents his government as free from corruption.