Section C: International option The League of Nations and international relations in the 1920s Read the sources and then answer both parts of the question. Source A [Figure A.1] A cartoon published in a British newspaper, September 1925. The middle figure is Austen Chamberlain, the British Foreign Secretary. Source B I had not met representatives of Germany until the Locarno Conference. I soon saw that they shared our sincere desire for peace and that they would work with us to secure this for the prosperity of all our peoples. We were fortunate in the character of the great Frenchman, Briand, who represented his country. He is a man of courage and clearness of vision. When he works to make peace, he does it whole-heartedly. The success of the Locarno Conference was essentially due to the character of the representatives of Germany and of France. It was in such a spirit of goodwill on all sides, of confidence and friendliness, that the Conference met. For the first time the nations who had been enemies met not to justify their actions or their failure to fulfil obligations, but on the initiative taken by the German government. The Conference of Locarno was an assembly of free nations meeting as equals to discuss their differences and, if possible, remove them. From a speech by Austen Chamberlain to the British parliament, November 1925. Source C During the past few years, I have led a battle for German foreign policy. It used to be a strongly militaristic country. As a result of the World War this old Germany collapsed but the transformation is not yet complete. The road to Locarno and admission to the League of Nations was not easy. It would be untrue to suggest that the Locarno policy met with joyful approval. Distrust abroad delayed a prompt response to the German proposal. At home, some saw weakness. Our opponents questioned the sincerity of Germany's desire for peace. Entry into the League of Nations was a condition for the Locarno Treaties. What a change that was! The League, founded as an association of victors, was seeking cooperation and reconciliation. Briand declared that the era of cannons and machine guns must end and that the two great nations, Germany and France, should compete only for the idealistic goals of mankind. From the speech of Stresemann accepting the Nobel Peace Prize, June 1927. Source D The fact that Poincaré was from Lorraine, born and brought up in sight of the German flag waving over the captured provinces of France, bred in him a hatred for Germany and all Germans. Poincaré would not tolerate any compromise, concession or conciliation. He was determined to keep Germany down. He was more responsible than any other man for the refusal of France to implement the disarmament provisions of the Treaty of Versailles. He intrigued with the anti-German elements in Britain to prevent every effort to restore goodwill in Europe and he completely blocked Briand's wishes in that direction. He is the true creator of modern Germany with its great and growing armaments, and should this end in another conflict, the catastrophe will have been engineered by Poincaré. His hand lies heavy on Europe today. From 'The Truth about the Peace Treaties', by Lloyd George, published in 1938. Poincaré was President of France until 1920, then Prime Minister for two periods during the 1920s.

Mark scheme

Marking points from the official mark scheme (Feb/Mar 2024). The mark or mark type is shown in brackets.

1. Indicative content
2. Similarities
3. It was the result of a German initiative.
4. This represented a big shift in attitudes – it was the 'first time' the countries had met as 'as equals' in Source B; Germany was changing and making a proposal to build peace in Source C.
5. It ended in success, stated in Source B and implied by the 'change' in relations between Germany and France described in Source C.
6. Differences
7. Distrust at home and abroad is emphasised in Source C, which is less positive in mood than Source B; Source B emphasises a 'spirit of good-will on all sides, of confidence'.
8. Source C refers to 'entry into the League of Nations' as a 'condition' for the agreement at Locarno, implying that Germany was still being treated differently to other nations. Source B presents the negotiations as between 'free nations, meeting as equals to discuss their differences'.
9. Explanation
10. The similarities reflect the situation of the mid 1920s, at which point the German government was working to establish better relations with other powers, in an effort to boost the economy and gain consent for the removal of British and French troops from its territories. Chamberlain was also keen to support France and reduce tension in Europe. The achievement was seen as significant at the time: Chamberlain was awarded the Nobel Prize for peace in 1925, with Stresemann and Briand sharing the same honour a year later in recognition of their work in securing the Locarno pact.
11. Chamberlain's positivity, which contrasts with Stresemann's more cautious optimism, reflects his hope that the Locarno agreement would secure his reputation not only as Foreign Secretary but as an international statesman. He was also trying to persuade a more sceptical British Parliament that the Locarno Agreement should be signed and celebrated. Stresemann, in his Nobel Lecture, is demonstrating the magnitude of the change which he has helped to bring about, both within Germany and in terms of international recognition.
12. Accept any other valid responses.
13. Indicative content
14. Support:
15. Source A: The German leader Stresemann is shown as sincere and offering both hands in friendship.
16. Source B: This emphasises the 'sincere desire for peace' of the German statesmen, led by Stresemann, and is particularly effusive about Briand as a man 'works to make peace'. The success of the conference is attributed to 'the character of the representatives of Germany and of France'.
17. Source C: Stresemann refers to his 'battle for German foreign policy' to reject old habits of militarism. He also mentions with great approval Briand's words that 'that the era of cannons and machine guns must end'.
18. Challenge:
19. Source A: This offers clear challenge in terms of Briand's hidden boxing glove, indicating his underlying hostility to Germany.
20. Source D: This also indicates France's continued deep animosity towards Germany. This is attributed to German actions in 1870 in 'the captured provinces' of Alsace-Lorraine. It was also determined not to move to general disarmament as promised by the Treaty of Versailles. Poincaré is shown as much more determined than Briand in his aim 'to prevent every effort to restore goodwill in Europe'. His influence was strong as he was either President or Prime Minister of France for most of the period from 1913 to 1929.
21. Evaluation:
22. Source A – The cartoon shows a British audience the sense that the appearance of cooperation is worth little. There is a strong suggestion of hypocrisy not only in Briand's hidden threat but also in the expressions of the British and French foreign ministers. Low was to build a reputation for mocking the empty gestures of western leaders when faced with the rise of fascism and militarism.
23. Source B – Chamberlain is showing his part in bringing together the formerly hostile nations as made mockingly clear in Source A – and his good relations with each. His hopes for success seem sincere but need to be emphasised in the context of a parliamentary debate.
24. Source C – Stresemann represents himself as a moderniser in Germany and the man who has instigated the Locarno Pact, with its hope of international peace. This is in keeping with the ideals of the Nobel Peace Prize, to which his speech relates.
25. Source D – Lloyd George and Poincaré had met on several occasions, particularly in negotiations for the Genoa Conference 1921–1922. They had not had a harmonious relationship. However, the view of the French leader's attitude to Germany has some basis – it was Poincaré who refused to accept any delay in German reparation payments in 1923 and ordered French troops into the Ruhr.
26. Taken together, the sources show some genuine desire to create the conditions for peace, but that it depended on the personality of individual leaders, and that there was entrenched hostility in both countries.
27. Accept any other valid responses.